Please be sure that you have carefully read all expectations, then add your (2) terms accordingly. We will discuss the work posted here during Weeks 4, 6 & 8 during the course and then the instructor will review all after the final day of the course in December.
Type your wiki glossary terms and an example of the application of this term in the classroom or the school. Glossary Terms 1 and Glossary Terms 2
Abstract - one or more well-developed paragraphs summarizing the purpose, findings, conclusions and recommendations of a report. (615 glossary) Aretia
"An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly. A well-prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph in your article. Most people will have their first contact with an article by seeing just the abstract. An abstract of a report of an empirical study should describe the problem under investigation, in one sentence if possible; the participants or subjects, specifying pertinent characteristics, such as number, type age, sex and species; the experimental method, the findings, including statistical significance, and the conclusions and the implications or applications" American Psychological Association (2007). Aretia
When submitting an abstract, "the article presents various guidelines for the contributors to the journal of choice. All text should be double-spaced including abstract, references, notes, etc. References should follow the American Psychological Association (APA) current edition style in alphabetical order. The abstract should be short - 100 to 250 words and not contain any undefined abbreviations or unspecified references. Number the pages consecutively with the first page containing; running heading (shortened title), title, author(s), affiliations(s), full address for correspondence, email address, also fax and telephone number" Social Psychology of Education (2005). Aretia
It is important to share empirical data or break through findings with colleagues, educators, scientist, etc. The short version of these findings can be published as an abstract. Most journals require that abstract submitters adhere to formatting guidelines as noted above. However, depending on the journal, small variations in the formatting and submission requirements may apply. As an educator, I can publish empirical results regarding data and interpretation of the data over a specified period of time. Published results may help other educators and students, or if I find an answer to a long-standing problem, I can publish this as well. I can choose to inform others of significant findings by publishing an abstract prior to or in conjunction with publishing the actual research paper.-Aretia
Achievement trajectory – Position of accomplishments over time; based on present data for a particular population or situation.The achievement trajectory is a measurable representation of the student’s learning progress as expressed through the rate of growth from the initial achievement in terms of test or assignment grades. The learning trajectory may be traced on a graph and the rate of progress compared to that of other individuals. On the graph, the initial achievement level is represented by the intercept and the growth rate by the slope. Dr. John Ferron, a professor at the University of South Florida and 2010 president of the Florida Educational Research Association, explains in his article Moving between Hierarchical Modeling Notations how second-level models based on mathematical matrices are used to compare and predict reasons for similarities among student trajectories (Ferron, 1997).I will use the achievement trajectory to evaluate the students’ rates of growth in such subjects as reading comprehension. This will allow me to adjust the pace of the class work and to discover which students are most in need of help of motivation. I would also like to share the data with the students, allowing that consciousness to impact their work and attitudes. - Kathleen
Action research - Systematic inquiry, with the collaboration of those affected by the issue being studied, for purposes of education and taking action or effecting change (615 Glossary).Action research has developed quite recently in the western hemisphere. Bud Hall, of the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, describes the historical, philosophical and political background of the concept of action research, otherwise known as participant research. The concept is based on constructivism. Bud Hall views action research first as a social and activist tool for groups, and only secondarily as an educational tool (Hall, 2005).In our program, action research is used for the educational improvement of the researcher and the refinement of the teaching aspects researched. I will be using action research during my internship under the MAT program to experiment with systematic instruction in metacognitive reading and writing strategies to improve reading comprehension. The students will become active participants with me in this exploration. This research should lead to future projects as I adapt to teaching in schools. - Kathleen causal inferences – Thought-process that tests whether a relation of cause to effect exists (615 Glossary).
One of the topics I am currently researching is the effects of using blogging in writing instruction. As I look at various studies on the subject, I have the opportunity to make any number of causal inferences based on the data and the conclusions offered by the various authors. Ducate and Lomicka (2008) make causal inferences between the use of blogs in writing instruction and increased ownership, creativity, and confidence in students. - Adam
Correlations - A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relationship, especially a structural, functional, or qualitative correspondence between two comparable entities. (615 Glossary) Bracey complains that he would like “to found the National Association for the Abolition of Correlation Coefficients (2006)” because of the difficulty people have interpreting correlations in data. He continues to state that the correlations that can be made are useful if educators are helped to understand what they mean (Bracey, 2006). An example of a study that looks for correlations in teaching and student learning is Zeng’s study of physical education in urban high schools (2009). Zeng et al created a study that’s purpose “was to examine the features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities in urban high school physical education class settings using the DIBA [Direct Instruction Behavior Analysis] system (2009).” Looking at the relationship between how teachers utilized their class time and what students were capable of doing, the study determined three correlations. The first was the more time teachers spent informing students correlated with the amount students were motor engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The second correlation was that teacher questioning was related to students being cognitively engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The final correlation was between teacher feedback and students’ cognitive engagement (Zeng et al, 2009). Looking at correlations can help educators see what effects their teaching styles or their students’ socioeconomic status, or many other variables can have on student learning. Stephanie Miller
Conclusions - A final part of the writing that restates the thesis, analyze[s] and evaluates the main points, considers consequences, shortcomings, general implications, recommendations and manifests the value of the research’s main ideas. (615 Glossary)
In any documented study, the conclusion summarizes the information determined by the data collected. It provides a succinct picture of what has been determined by the study and where the information could possibly be taken from there. An example of this can be found in Snow and D’Amico’s 2010 study, The drum-circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk students youth in a school setting. The conclusion of this study restates the questions asked throughout the process, and restates the results that support the authors’ ideas (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). It gathers information from the various tools utilized throughout the study, from videotaped teaching to interviews, to prove their statements (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). The authors go on to state that “generalizations [cannot be made] from a qualitative study but the conclusions can help shape future studies (Snow & D’Amico, 2010).” They state other things that can be done with the information in the future as well. Snow and D’Amico also give advice for researchers planning future studies that build on the work done in this study (2010). When educators are utilizing studies to support a point being made, or are researching on their own, the conclusion is an important section to include. Stephanie Miller
Data inventory– summary of types of data available (615 Glossary).I believe that a diverse data inventory is invaluable in evaluating school performance and establishing a data-driven improvement plan. The article by Adrade et al. (2009) provides many ideas for formative assessment, self-assessment, and peer-assessment that I can implement in my language arts classroom. This will allow me to add variety to my data inventory beyond the basic test scores and assessment rubrics I already use.- Adam Document analysis – Systematic, critical examination of instructional documents (syllabi, assignments, lecture notes, course evaluation results) in order to identify instructional needs and challenges and describe an instructional activity.- Stephan
In failing schools administrative may need to begin micro-managing in order to assist teaching in raising scores. A document analysis with the teacher may be an excellent first step. During the gathering stage of creating a data team these document analyses should be used.
Educational Research Issues: Topics, tensions, dilemmas, issues and challenges that characterize and affect learning and educational policy and are worthy of further investigation. (615 glossary) Aretia
"The NCLB (2002) is part of the recent history of educational reform with its emphasis on basic skills and mandated assessments. These reforms and the values they reflect should be understood by all who work with schools, students, their families, and teachers" Duffy et al (2008). Aretia
"The key point here, of course, is the definition and unstated assumptions about the meaning of scientifically based research within the NCLB (2002) and the philosophical and practical values embedded within the definition. It is clear to many scholars that the meaning of scientifically based research embodied within the NCLB (2002) is that of empirical research that relies on quantitative designs, such as randomized clinical trials, quasi-experimental designs, and quantitatively validated assessment instruments to measure student and school achievement, as well as interpretations of such data regarding the appropriate age and time (i.e., grade level) by which an individual student should have acquired certain kinds and levels of knowledge" Duffy et al (2008).
"One of the difficulties with the NCLB (2002) is that these values that privilege quantitative research and quantitative individual assessment were never explicitly addressed. The NCLB Act assumes that we can specify and measure what all children should know and learn, and the grade level at which they should know it. Further, it assumes that accountability for assuring that children will have the expected grade level knowledge and skills can be established on the basis of these measures" Duffy et al (2008). Aretia
The educational literature reveals that there are educational research issues with the NCLB Act (2002) with regard to mandated assessments. I believe that one test does not fit all when it comes to measuring student achievement and learning at an "appropriate age, time, and grade level" Duffy et al (2008). In my classroom, I will respect that all students do not learn at the exact same age, pace, or grade level. I believe that learning is an individual experience. In my classroom, I will take the liberty to give students varied learning activities and assessments to individualize the learning process and measuring knowledge and achievement. Aretia
Experimental research - Research that seeks explanation for cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables while holding other factors constant. (615 Glossary) Experimental research is extremely important is discovering the cause. In education, if you wish to learn why your students are performing better or worse, an educator must look at all variables. One cannot just assume that playing soft music, or having an extra study session is creating better scores. If a study is to be truly done, experiments should be repeated with different variables taken out. In the Dunleavy experiment laptops were used to determine their impact on student achievement. A control group, a school without laptops, was important to make comparisons and make sure another variable is not affecting scores. (Dunleavy, 2008) – Stephan
Heuristics - Trial-and-error procedure for solving problems (or reaching an unclear goal) through incremental exploration, and by employing a known criteria to unknown factors. (615 Glossary)
Heuristics is important in research because it takes the factors that are controlled and connecting it to unknown factors. In the Dodge (2009) study he points out that in the age of NCLB the heuristic approach is a “mental shortcut.” It is a simplified way of predicting student success. In the classroom, this could be use for making predictions based on current scores and determine the number of students needed to achieve a certain goal. Twynette
Implications – Deduction: something that is inferred (615 Glossary) Concerning teacher effectiveness and experience, research from the Urban Institute shows that the impact of experience :is strongest during the first few years of teaching; after that, marginal returns diminish... Beyond the first several years of teaching, experience is a less useful indicator of increased productivity: (King, 2010). This correlation between can have serious implications for the way school districs hire, compensate, and retain effective teachers. The article suggests "that compensation aimed at rewarding experience-based productivity may be best frontloaded in the salary schedule" (King, 2010) in order to recruit good teachers and to improve teacher effectiveness.
- Cameron Johnson
“Inferenceis a good guess” (based on logic, statistics etc.) to observations or by interpolating the next logical step in an intuited pattern. Most empirical research is statistical. Therefore inferences are mostly made from evaluating and analyzing the research to make an inference. The conclusion called an inference. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic. In the classroom, a teacher may make an inference based on data. Such as if the majority of a class has not passed a specific section of a test, an inference could be made to reteach that specific topic.
Heather Kalish
Longitudinal data – Correlational, statistical data aimed at identifying a trend over a period of time through repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time. (615 Glossary)
Longitudinal data is important in research because it is a way of tracking progress over a period of time. In research done by Young et al. (2007), they explain that longitudinal data is a way of not only tracking data, but also away to analyze the cause and effect relationship of the data. By looking at the data of my student’s test score over a period of time I have a benchmark of where my students should score the year that I have them. It shows me what score my students need to strive for in order to continue to progress. At my school, we use longitudinal data form MSA to track the progress of students over the grade levels and as an indicator of projected performance. Twynette Literature Review often used with academic oriented literature. It usually is done before a research proposal and the results. It brings the academic reader up to date and sets the goal for future research in that area. A literature review will contain a logical flow of ideas, references, and unbiased view of previous research of the topic. In the classroom, a teacher could have students conducting a research paper, participate in a literature review. Students can analyze their research using theories and methodologies in that particular subject.Heather Kalish Measurement Error - Difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained by a measurement (615 Glossary).It is important to account for measurement error in research since the data that may be recorded at one point in time can be different from what is recorded at another time or under a different set of circumstances. In education, one of the most difficult skills to assess consistently is student writing ability. Grisham & Wosely’s (2005) study illustrates the potential for measurement error when there is no consistent standard for analyzing and assessing writing. While many can agree on what constitutes good or poor writing, quantifying those assessments can be a different matter. The concept of measurement error will remind me to improve the consistency and objectivity of my writing assessment rubrics. - Adam. Non-experimental research – Causal-comparative research where one seeks to observe or identify natural causes and non-manipulated causes to determine the effect relationships
Non-experimental research is important because in many cases it is impossible for the observer not to have an impact on their experiment. For example, a principal observing a teacher in the classroom may result in extremely well behaved students by the sheer fact that the principal is sitting in the classroom. This may not be an actual representation of how the teacher and student truly relate. In the Lowther study, schools with large amounts of technology were visited to determine if technology integration was working. Barriers were discovered such as lack of technology knowledge on the teacher’s parts, availability of computers, and lack of administrative support for the programs. Variables were not needed to be controlled as this was pure observation on the part of the visitors to the schools. (Lowther, 2008) – Stephan
Observation – the act of making or recording the accepted value given for a single instance of a sample study.-Stephan “People may well not behave in their usual manner whilst aware of being watched, or when being interviewed while carrying out an activity. Many forms of research involve similar problems and allowing for these in interpretation is a key professional skill for researchers. Commercial researchers actively use their experience of conducting many interviews and observations over time, building useful benchmarks about observer and interviewer effects in general.” (Association for Qualitative Research)
Quantitative research - Use of sampling techniques (such as surveys) whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to statistical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities. (615 Glossary) A 2008 study of teacher certification and teacher effectiveness in New York City public schools looked at the characteristics of teachers hired during the 1999–2000 to 2004–2005 school years (Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008). According to the quantitative data:
there were 51,788 teachers
3.9% of those teacher were international teachers
79.8% of the regular certified teachers were female
the median age of Teacher for America teachers when hired was 23
Table of quantitative research figures
- Cameron Johnson
Score inflation - score inflation is an increase in scores that do not indicate a commensurate increase in actual proficiency. (615 glossary) Aretia
Tully (2008) stated that "the most important issue may well be the rapidly growing use of standardized tests to hold educational institutions accountable. Test-based accountability has become the cornerstone of K-12 education policy in America, and a big push is under way to extend it to postsecondary education. Unfortunately, we don't do a good job with it. For example, the simple approaches we have used often lead to inappropriate types of test preparation, and those in turn can cause severe score inflation -->Aretia
"In a classroom setting, score inflation can wreak havoc on high stakes testing. Score inflation is significant because students can be tested and earn a high score. The high score, however, bears no reflection on the student's true abilities. The score is only a manifestation that the student somehow gained access to certain contents of a particular test before the test was given. It is a real possibility that people would consider this cheating" Boudett, City, and Murmane (2008). Aretia
Score inflation is a very serious problem that can cause short-term and long-term difficulties for students. I believe that the short-term problems are that learning deficiencies go undetected, no remedial or individualized help will be offered, and records will not reveal a true assessment of a student's skill level in a particular subject or content area. Long-term problems are that the true skill levels, undetected, could very well fall below standards, student may not be prepared for next grade level, and may do poorly on future tests if the answers are not provided. I do not intend to be one of the educators who provide answers to students to enable them to pass a test. - Aretia Standard scores - these scores are used in norm-referenced assessment to compare one student's performance on a test to the performance of other students of the same age. These scores allow one to estimate whether a student's scores are
above average, average, or below average compared to their peers. (glossary 615) Aretia
According to Badgett and Christmann (2009), "standard scores show an individual's relative performance within a group. We are all familiar with standard scores and use them all the time: SAT scores are standard scores, as are individual scores on achievement tests, class rank, intelligence tests, and a variety of other aptitude tests. Standard scores will help one understand their students' standardized test results and explain the results to parents."
As an educator, I would encourage students to take their SAT as soon as possible. The results of the test will give an idea of how well students are doing in their subjects. Students who earn high scores are usually exempt from the college placement exam. Students who earn low SAT scores may be required by some colleges to take the college placement exam. Depending on the results of the placement exam, students will be placed in remedial classes or placed at college level. Although SAT scores are helpful to colleges, parents and students in their school selection process, students who do not earn high scores can still attend college and do well in their studies. Aretia
===Norm-Referenced Tests- According to Wikipedia, a norm-referenced test/NRT is a type of test, assessment or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. This estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and possibly other relevant data from a sample drawn for the population. The term normative assessment refers to the process of comparing one test-take to his or her peers. NRT’s are the most common and oldest type of standardized test. According to our text, Data Wise, some examples of norm-referenced test are as follows: Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), Stanford 9, and the Terra Nova, California Achievement Test, Metropolitan Achievement Test, and the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. These tests are designed to describe performance-often the performance of individual students, but in some cases that of schools, districts, states, or even countries-in regards to distribution of performance.We use NRT's to gather a baseline as to whether students are performing on grade level in comparison to those of their same aged-peers. I use these test to help guide my lesson planning, differientiated instruction, reteaching activities and project implementation.Laysha
Standard-Referenced Tests- According to our text, Data Wise, standards-referenced tests are the newest type of assessment which is also known as standards-based test (SRT). SRTs are developed by specifying content standards (what students should know and be able to do) and performance standards (how much of this content they are expected to know and be able to do). SRTs are very similar to CRT-(Criterion Referenced Tests), with the exception that in most cases three or four different performance levels are specified. Basically, when students are assessed on a SRT, they demonstrate whether they show “basic”, “proficient”, or “advanced” knowledge of the content standards-based on the curriculum or frameworks during classroom instruction.
The students are tested yearly over the curriculum and instruction that they should have learned from the previous school year to mid-year of the next school year; for example, our standards in Maryland run from March to March; whereas they begin to learn the next grade level standards during the end of the previous school year and they test in March. These test are atate mandated and as we all are aware of the high priority of the Education reform-these test are of high importance. Laysha
Unstructured observation (field notes)- It refers to one of the ways of using observation as method of primary data collection. In this type of observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand. For example, observing children playing with new toys. This form of observation is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. However, in this form of observation there is high probability of observer’s bias. Unstructured Observation- considered the early phase of research and may become specific when and where to observe, what specific aspects of the setting or behavior to observe, and how to make and record observations. I use this type of observation when visiting other classrooms, visiting new schools as a whole, and when sitting in on meetings that I am not directly involved in.Laysha
Archival research-The kind of research in which the major base of references and knowledge is from secondary sources such as census data, newspaper clippings, birth certificates and past records in different sectors, such a research is called archival research. Another name for archival research is secondary research, which is the opposite of primary research, which is research that is done from scratch and no past material is sought help from. In regards to archival research and education, we store data on our students as well as important documents such as birth certificates. We store graduation certificates, testing performance data, and graduation requirements data.
Laysha
Statistical analysis - refers to a collection of methods used to process large amounts of data and report overall trends (615 Glossary). Statistical analysis has become a major factor in education in recent years with the rise in high stakes testing. The article by Zwick et al. (2008) discusses importance of teachers and principals being able to understand and use the statistical analysis or data to improve their instruction. This study found that many educators were not familiar with how to use or understand statistical analysis and data. However, it stated that teachers provided with professional development “made significant gains in their understanding of statistical concepts” (Zwick et al. 2008, p 16). Teachers that can read and understand the results of statistical analysis can use the trends shown to help improve their teaching. For example, I could use a statistical analysis of the whole school, county, or state to see trends of where other students are and where my students should be. I can then use that data to try to improve my teaching methods reinforcing areas where my students may be lacking. - Michelle
Criterion-referenced tests (CRT) – test that is designed to determine if a student has mastered a defined set of skills (615 Glossary). An article by Betebenner (2009) discusses the difference between criterion and norm referenced tests as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. The article states that because these types of tests set a required level of achievement they “are extremely demanding, requiring, without condition, an acceptable level of achievement from all students.” (Betebenner 2009, p 43). I use criterion-referenced tests a lot in my teaching through the use of rubrics. Rubrics have a set passing score and allow me to judge each student individually based on their abilities or knowledge. Criterion-referenced tests are also used on a broader level in state assessments like the MSA where there is a set score for proficient or not. This is also a norm-referenced test however because it also compares and ranks students. – MichelleStatistical significance
- measure of validity of data. Data collected is "worth accepting with confidence," not a result of "chance" or sampling error. (Boudett, City, & Murnane, 2005) Not to be confused with practical significance(does the data have value.) (Bracey, 2006) Statistical significance does not mean what is states literally. Significant in non- statistical terms relates to value or importance. One might look at results and analyze what it means to them. That is practical significance. Statistical significance relates to truth of the data collected or reliability. This concept would apply to the classroom when comparing scores of a student. One would have to collect enough data and control as many variables as possible to ensure good scores are not a result of lucky guesses, while bad scores are not the result of teaching style. Ron Pardoe summative research methods – Research used to assess or summarize the value of a completed activity or program (615 Glossary).
Roblyer and Doering (2010) assert that in order for a technology tool to be worth using, it must add value to existing instructional content. This litmus test is also known as the “so what?”question. Gray et al. (2010) performed a research study on the implications of Web 2.0 utilities as tools for assessment. Their investigation found a paucity of summative research methods used to quantify the value added of Web 2.0 authoring as assessments, and therefore concluded that more detailed studies need to be done on a variety of Web 2.0 formats. - Adam
Formative Research Methods- Research that occurs before a program is designed and implemented, or while a program is being conducted, helping to define, and understand and improve the relationship between programs and population needs. (EDTC 615 Glossary)
Formative research can be conducted not only to identify a program's operation, the problems which it addresses, and the effects it appears to produce, but also to facilitate program development. (Rutman,1997) This research method is currently being applied in our school. We have analyzed data to identify student weaknesses, and are asked to implement interventions. General reading comprehension skills have been identified as a deficit for several of my students. I have decided to implement a program titled Fast Track to address the students comprehension. Fast Track has a test to determine a student's baseline. I will collect data to analyze the effects this Reading program appears to produce. Ron Pardoe
Qualitative Research-Investigative methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research, which emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found. These kinds of studies are incredibly important to the field of education due to the fact that the natural setting of the classroom is taken into effect. Educators can never really set up a perfect lab experiment where we can control for all variables of the situation due to the often quite varied experiences and abilities of all of our students. Using qualitative research methods allows teachers to make observations and comparisons that can then better inform the way they teach. Presently, there seems to be a movement in education against the use of qualitative studies due to their inherent lack of quantitative results. Author H. K. Wright argues that, “the state of qualitative inquiry,’ …in education is in quite a state.”(2006 p 793). By this the author means that the use of qualitative research in the classroom has taken a hit due to numbers based programs like NCLB. The author; however, argues that there are still several reasons for why the use of qualitative research is worthwhile in a classroom setting.
I tend to agree with the view point of Wright and have often times used qualitative research methods in my class when attempting new teaching methods that have been discussed during teacher in services. Administration is often finding new methods of teaching certain content areas and put a great deal of emphasis on teachers incorporating these methods into their classes. These methods; however, are not all made the same, some are great and some are awful. To determine if I will continue to use a technique I set out to observe my students in the classroom using the technique and compare it to how productive my students have been using other methods. This isn’t scientific, but it gives me a chance to see the technique in a real life situation that is full of variables to see if it is a worthwhile teaching technique. - John
Multiple methods- The combining of different methods within the same study design. There are certain times when performing research when one method of gathering data will simply not provide enough information to answer the research question. In these cases multiple methods of data gathering may be needed. As stated by Hitchcock in his article on multiple methods, “Mixed methods research entails a design in which ‘the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry.’”(2010 p 49-50). For instance, in my AP Psychology classes there is clear data analysis that I can perform at the end of each year to determine how successful I was at teaching my students Psychology content. I can gather the data from the AP tests and see how my numbers compare to other teachers all around the country. This information; however, is only a small part of what I need to know in order to determine how successful I was at helping my students learn. In order to get a more complete picture of my students learning I could also incorporate qualitative measures through a survey at the end of the year to see what topics students felt the most/least confident in, as well as what activities/lectures were the best for the purposes of learning Psychology. With this information, I could better understand what the struggling students in the class did and didn’t understand as well as what the exceptional students needed to be successful. This is simply one example of how combining research methods can be beneficial to the teacher and students of a classroom. - John
Practitioner research - Research carried out by practitioners for the purpose of advancing their own practice.
Practitioner research “is conducted by an individual or group that assumes a dual role, both as a practitioner or provider of services and as researcher. It is typically carried out for the purpose of advancing the practice. It offers a reflective and systematic approach to university research and outreach that places a study setting and participants at the heart of the study. It incorporates the collective knowledge of the community, and increases the likelihood that results will be applied. The methods may vary, but the role and relationships of the researcher and participants must be carefully negotiated and articulated (CSU, 2007).” According to Pilkington, the steps in practitioner research include “cyclical processes of diagnosing a situation, gathering data, planning to act, acting and reflecting on action (2009).” Pilkington’s study looked at educators in a doctoral program that asks them to evaluate their teaching utilizing practitioner research (2009). Educators should utilize practitioner research in their teaching to determine where they need to grow and what will benefit their students’ learning. Stephanie
Replicability - Property of an activity, process, or test result that allows it to be duplicated at another location or time. (EDTC 615 Glossary) - Twynette
Research Methodology - A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods (615 Glossary) Research methodology has to do with the way research is gathered. According to Symonds and Gorard, there are two defined methods for gathering research, quantitative and qualitative (2010). They also describe a third method, which they define as a “mixed method” for retrieving information (Symonds, 2010). The mixed method utilizes aspects of both qualitative and quantitative in order to gather a broader range of information. In Boudett’s book, Data Wise, there is an anecdote about a school that is attempting to create a data inventory (Boudett, 2010). One of the teachers in the story complains that, “the [state standardized] test gives such an incomplete picture of who our students are. It tells us essentially nothing about a lot of the things we all know really matter: how often they come to school, how they behave when they’re here, what specific skills they’re struggling with if they are new to learning English, whether they can write a decent term paper. We’re not going to be able to get our kids beyond simply passing if we don’t take these things into account (Boudett, 2010).” With this in mind, educators and administrators should pay careful attention to the research methodology that they use to gather information about students that can then help students to progress and achieve more. Stephanie
WEEK 7 TERMS
Case study – Form of qualitative, descriptive research that refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. (615 Glossary)
According to Soy (1997) case study research “brings us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.” Case studies are often referred to in education to support validity on a certain topic or issue. Educators use case studies to provide a type of research for a particular issue of study. In my early years of becoming an educator, I had to perform case studies on a particular student or students to analyze the student/s development or growth. Educators would find case studies useful to support possible instructional approaches in their classroom or learning theories. Kristen
Field-based research – Includes activities aimed at collecting primary data rather relying on published material. Often involves face-to-face interviewing and direct observation. (615 Glossary)
Monica
Focus groups – Small number of people (usually between 4 and 15) brought together with a moderator to discuss and produce qualitative data about a particular topic. (615 Glossary) Focus groups are an integral component in a school improvement plan. Focus groups are usually comprised of select individuals with the knowledge to improve school routines and procedures. This group analyzes data and makes instructional decisions based on conversations and research about an issue or topic. The benefits to “focus group research can produce highly useful information about programs and services that surveys miss, so it may be worthwhile to rise to the challenge.” Grudens-Schuck et, al (2004) Our school uses focus groups that our school calls Professional Learning Teams (PLT’s). In these teams we meet to discuss a particular issue or topic. We become the experts of this topic and present the information to our staff. The goals we work on are aligned to our School Improvement Plan. Kristen
Triangulation of data – A form of cross-checking by gathering of data through several sampling strategies—from different populations, at different times and in different place. (615 Glossary)
Triangulation of data is looking at other data to either confirm or dispute your findings. According to Boudette (2005), it is helpful to draw on different types of assessments, such as tests, portfolios, and student conferences. The chapter goes on to say that assessments should be given at different times during the school year to help discover patterns or inconsistencies in student responses. Although the standardized tests are an important tool to use to gather data on students, triangulation of data allows for a more accurate assessment of student learning. Monica
Random sample - Sample chosen that allows all subjects an equal probability of being selected. Can also be called a probability sample. In order to discern true validity of new educational practices, one must make sure that studies attain a random sample. In order to run an experiment/correlational study, one must assign individuals to control and experimental groups, this must be done in a random way, or else the validity of the experiment will be called into question. Take for example, if a teacher is trying to gather data on two different methods of teaching a certain topic. If he simply assigns one class to the control group and the other to the experimental group and then bases his conclusion on the different performance of these groups on the two methods, he would be incorrect. There could be all sorts of factors that differentiate the first class from the second that are not being controlled for in the experiment, and these differences could be just as likely of causes for the difference in performance. If the teacher would have divided either class up by drawing names from a hat, or some other random means of assignment, the teacher would better control for possible confounding variables that could influence the study. Random sampling is a basic practice of all research methodologies and can be seen in any of the following research articles:
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574. John
Regression analyses - A statistical technique that compares a dependent variable to an independent variable(s) in order to identify a relationship between the two or more variables. Being an AP teacher, there are several variables that are important to consider when trying to identify what leads a student to a passing grade on the AP exam. I currently teach AP and Honors Psychology and have for as long as I have taught both, I have instructed students to take both classes because it would benefit them on the AP exam. Now that I have had several years of data, I have performed some regression analyses to see if there is a relationship between the independent variable of “# of semesters in a psychology class” and the dependent variable of “score on the AP exam.” What I have found is that students who have taken both 2 semesters of Psychology earn close to a full point higher score on the AP test. Obviously one cannot reduce the score of an AP test to one single variable, as is discussed thoroughly by Alan Sykes in his lecture on regression analysis, but it does prove to be a good stat when trying to influence students to take both classes in order to better their scores. - John
Control group - In experimentation, group of subjects or conditions that is matched as closely as possible with experimental group, but is not exposed to any experimental treatment.(EDTC 615 Glossary) Control groups are used in research to determine if the variable in a study is effective. The control group is the group that does not change, or the one in which the variable does not apply. Although when we think of a control group we tend to think in terms of more lab based research (like medical research) it applies to educational studies as well. In the study by Begeny et al. (2010) the main focus of the study is comparing the results of the control group to the variable group in order to determine the effectiveness of their reading program. The study was able to “produce reading outcomes that differ significantly from a controlgroup” (Begeny et al. 2010) but more importantly they stressed the importance of similar studies in order to “empirically validate existing educational programs being used in schools” (Bengeny et al. 2010). It is extremely important to have these control groups for comparison when implementing new programs within your school. Without a control group how can you prove the effectiveness of the program being used. For example at my school they have implemented a behavioral plan that is being implemented at several schools across the state. They collect data from our school and compare it to other schools which are the control group to determine if the program is effective. With the recent push for research based interventions and programs teachers need to be able to determine when a program is effective based on data comparisons using control groups. – Michelle
Informed consent – A legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications and future consequences of an action. Informed consent is important in research because many studies require that individuals be made aware of an experiment and give consent before the research can begin. However, in the article by Crasborn the author discuss new implications of consent in our increasingly technology driven world (2010). The author states that at times when information is obtained technologically informed consent can be difficult to obtain (Crasborn 2010). Overall in research it is important to obtain the proper informed consent, in order for a valid through study. Obtaining the proper consent is something you have to be very careful of in your own classroom. I know my school has a very strict consent policy for any student pictures projects that are posted online, as well as for certain subject areas. Consent forms are very familiar to all of us if various forms but as teachers we have to be extra careful to have students and parent consent before posting things like class projects, blogs, or online portfolios. In our increasingly connected world it is defiantly something we as teachers have to be aware of. – Michelle
Inference – An assumption or conclusion that is rationally and logically made, based on the given facts or circumstances (615 glossary).
In the study of assessments, Bracey (2006) often talked about how people, organizations, and even countries infer student achievement levels based on single test results. As I work with my seventh-grade world geography students, I am to teach them about the physical characteristics of the countries, as well as the capitols, type of government, and religion. As the year goes on, I will begin to provide the students with some information about a country and have them infer the type of government, or religion that it might have. Their inferences will be based on what we have covered to that point, especially information about other countries in the region. Rodney
Integrate-to form, coordinate, or blend into a functioning or unified whole (merriam-webster.com). Roblyer (2006) addresses integrating problem-solving software into both the directed and constructivist classroom (pp. 98-99). Since I first encountered Roblyer’s writings on strategies for integrating software, I have begun to integrate technology, various news media, and printed material into my classes. For example, with this being an election year, I use a C-Span Classroom lesson in my unit on the US Constitution. The C-Span lesson includes a number of videos, and readings from the Constitution. To go along with that, the students identify the positions that are open this fall, and who is running for each. To finish the unit, I hope to have the students do an online project where they collaborate with teammates to produce a campaign spot supporting a candidate or issue that will be on the ballot this fall. The latter part will only take place if our computers are available in time. Rodney
Raw score – simple count or percentage achieved on a test (615 glossary). In my class, I mostly use raw scores to communicate the students progress to them and their parents. Mehrens and Lehmann (1985) point out that raw scores do not tell much other than the percentage correct the the student received. In the day-to-day class work, this works for me since the motivation is to reach the perfect score of 100%. However, when looking at the standardized tests, norm-referenced scores is what our school leadership, and our parents like to see since they can compare our students to the norm for all catholic students across the country. Rodney
Structured observation - A research study in which the observer records what they are witnessing. Can be done by filling out a questionnaire form or counting the occurrences of a certain activity (615 glossary). Annually, our principal, or assisistant principal will spend a class period observing each teacher in action. After the observation, the teacher meets with the principal and they discuss how the class went. To get the most out of this process, I would like the observer to follow Griffee’s (2005) work and use a detailed checklist to record required components while allowing time and a place to observe and record other activities taking place in the classroom. This will give the observer, and the teacher, a broader view of the classroom dynamics.
Rodney
Sources American Psychological Association (2007). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th,ed.,p.12), Washington, DC: Author. AretiaAndrade, H., Buff, C., Terry, J., Erano, M., & Paolino, S. (2009). Assessment-driven improvements in middle school students' writing. Middle School Journal, 40(4), 4-12. Retrieved September 29, 2010, from Education Research Complete database.- Adam Association for Qualitative Research (n.d.) Retrieved November 2, 2010 from http://www.aqr.org.uk/glossary/index.shtml?term=observereffect - .- StephanBadgett, J.L., Christmann, E.P. (2009). Interpreting assessment data: Statistical techniques you can use. National Science Teacher's Association. Retrieved October 11, 2010 from Education Research Complete database.AretiaBetebenner, D. (2009). Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Student Growth. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 28(4), 42-51. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2009.00161.x. - MichelleBegeny, J., Laugle, K., Krouse, H., Lynn, A., Tayrose, M., & Stage, S. (2010). A Control-Group Comparison of Two Reading Fluency Programs: The Helping Early Literacy With Practice Strategies (HELPS) Program and the Great Leaps K-2 Reading Program. School Psychology Review, 39(1), 137-155. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. – MichelleBoudett, K.P., City, E.A., & Murnane, R.J. (2008). Data wise: a step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning, p. 33. Cambridge, MA. Harvard Education Press. AretiaBoudett, K, City, E, & Murnane, R. (Ed.). (2005). Data wise:A step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press -RonBoudett, K.P., City, E.A., Murnane, R.J. (Eds.). (2010). Data Wise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. - Stephanie Miller
Boudett, K., City, E, & Murnane, R. (2008). Chapter 4: Digging into data. In Data wise a step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning (pp. 90-92).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press ~ Monica Moyer
Boudett, Kathryn, City, Elizabeth, & Murnane, Richard. (2008). Data Wise: A Step-by-Step Guide to Using Assessment Results to Improve Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Harvard Education PressNorm-Reference Test. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 20, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm-referenced_test Laysha
Bracey, G. (2006). Reading educational research:How to avoid getting statistically snookered . Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.- Ron Bracey, Gerald W. (2006). Reading Educational Research: How to avoid GettingStatistically Snookered. Portsmouth: Heinemann.LayshaUnstructured observation. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2010 from www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/**Observation**.pdf-Laysha
Bracey, G. W. (2006). Reading educational research. Heinemann: Portsmouth, NH. Stephanie Miller
The California State University Chancellor’s Doctoral Incentive Program. (2007). Practitionerresearch. Retrieved from http://teachingcommons.cdl.edu/cdip/facultyresearch/Practitionerresearch.htmlStephanie Miller Crasborn, O. (2010). What Does "Informed Consent"Mean in the Internet Age?. Sign Language Studies, 10(2), 276-290. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - Michelle
Ducate, L., & Lomicka, L. (2008). Adventures in the blogosphere: from blog readers to blog writers. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(1), 9-28. doi:10.1080/09588220701865474. - Adam Dodge, A. (2009). Heuristics and NCLB standardized tests: A Convenient Lie. International Journal of Progressive Education, 5(2), 6-22. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. -TwynetteDuffy, M., Giordano, V. A., Farrell, J.B., Paneque, O.M., Crump, G.B. (2008). No Child Left Behind: Values and Research Issues in High-Stakes Assessments. Counseling & Values,
(53(1), p. 53-66. Retrieved October 21, 2010 from Education Research Complete
database. Aretia
Dunleavy, M., & Heinecke, W. (2008). The impact of 1:1 laptop use on middle school math and science standardized test scores. Computers in the Schools, 247-22. -StephanFerron, J. (1997). Moving between hierarchical modeling notations. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics. 22(1). 119-123.Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/pss/1165241 September 22, 2010.- Kathleen
Gray, K., Thompson, C., Sheard, J., Clerehan, R., & Hamilton, M. (2010). Students as Web 2.0 authors: Implications for assessment design and conduct. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 105-122. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - Adam
Grisham, D., & Wolsey, T. (2005). Improving writing: comparing the responses of eighth-graders, preservice teachers and experienced teachers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21(4), 315-330. doi:10.1080/10573560591002259.- Adam Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
John Grudens-Schuck, Nancy., Allen, Beverely L., Larson, Kathleen. (2004). Focus group fundamentals. Methodology Brief, Iowa State University, University Extension. Retrieved October 25, 2010 from www.extension.iastate.edu/publications/pm1969b.pdKristen
Hall, B.L. (2005). In from the cold? Reflections on participatory research from 1970-2005. Convergence. 38(1). 5-24. Retrieved from http://www.convergemag.com/ September 22, 2010. – Kathleen
Kane, T.J., Rockoff, J.E., & Staiger, D.O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review 27(6), 615-631. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.05.005
- Cameron JohnsonLiterature Review(n.d.) Retrieved October 20, 2010from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_reviewMoreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
John Pilkington, R.M. (2009). Studies in the Education of Adults, 41(2), 154-174. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. - Stephanie Miller
Symonds, J.E., Gorard, S. (2010). Death of mixed methods? Or the rebirth of research as a craft. Evaluation & Research in Education, 23(2), 121-136. doi:10.1080/09500790.2010.483514 - Stephanie Miller
Rice, J. K., (2010). The impact of teacher experience: Examining the evidence and policy implications. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, Brief 11, August 2010. Retrieved October 11, 20101, from http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/1001455-impact-teacher-experience.pdf- Cameron Johnson
Roblyer, M. D., & Doering, A. H. (2010). Integrating educational technology into teaching (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. - Adam
Sheers, Kelly (2010). ADMINISTRATOR, TEACHER,AND PARENT PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS’ SENSE OF COMMUNITY IN ONE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLRetrieved November 2, 2010 from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04132010-192705/unrestricted/Sheers_KellyS_D_2010.pdf - .- Stephan
Snow, S., D’Amico, M. (2010). The drum circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk youth in a school setting. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy. (16)1, 12-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete. Stephanie Miller
Social Psychology of Education. (2005) vol 8(1), 117. Retrieved October 3, 2010 from Educational Research Complete database. doi 10,1007/s11218-005-1142-y -Aretia
Soy, Susan K. (1997). The case study as a research method. Unpublished paper, University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved October 25, 2010 from http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm Kristen
Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574. - John Tully, S. (2008, August). Limitations in the use of achievement tests as measures of educators' productivity. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(49), A23-A29. Retrieved October 3, 2010, from Education Research Complete database. - Aretia
Wright, H. (2006). Are we (t)here yet? Qualitative research in education’s profuse and contested present. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE), 19(6), 793-802. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database 10/12/10. - John FreundelYoung, A., Powwers, J., & Wheway, V. (2007). Working with longitudinal data: Attrition and retention, data quality, measures of change and other analytical issues. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 1(2), 175-187. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - Twynette Zwick, R., Sklar, J., Wakefield, G., Hamilton, C., Norman, A., & Folsom, D. (2008). Instructional Tools in Educational Measurement and Statistics (ITEMS) for School Personnel: Evaluation of Three Web-Based Training Modules. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 27(2), 14-27. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2008.00119.x. - Michelle Zeng, H.Z., Leung, R., Wenhao, L. & Hipscher, M. (2009). Physical education in urban high school class settings: Features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities. Physical Educator, 66(4), 186-196. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete.Stephanie MillerBracey, G. (2006). Reading educational research: how to avoid getting statistically snookered (pp. 1-18). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. RodneyGriffee, D. T. (2005). Research tips: Classroom observation data collection, part II. Journal of Developmental Education, 29(2), 36-39. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.umuc.edu/login?url= http://search.ebscohost. com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19257069&login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=siteRodney<!--[if gte mso 10]> Mehrens, W. A., & Lehmann, I. J. (1985). Interpreting test scores to clients: What score should one use? Journal of Counseling & Development, 63(5), 317. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.umuc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4964666&login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=siteRodney
Merriam-Webster. Retrieved on September 18, 2010 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrate
Roblyer, M. (2006). Integrating educational technology into teaching, pp. 98—99. Pearson Education Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ. Rodney
Type your wiki glossary terms and an example of the application of this term in the classroom or the school.
Glossary Terms 1 and Glossary Terms 2
Abstract - one or more well-developed paragraphs summarizing the purpose, findings, conclusions and recommendations of a report. (615 glossary) Aretia
"An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly. A well-prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph in your article. Most people will have their first contact with an article by seeing just the abstract. An abstract of a report of an empirical study should describe the problem under investigation, in one sentence if possible; the participants or subjects, specifying pertinent characteristics, such as number, type age, sex and species; the experimental method, the findings, including statistical significance, and the conclusions and the implications or applications" American Psychological Association (2007). Aretia
When submitting an abstract, "the article presents various guidelines for the contributors to the journal of choice. All text should be double-spaced including abstract, references, notes, etc. References should follow the American Psychological Association (APA) current edition style in alphabetical order. The abstract should be short - 100 to 250 words and not contain any undefined abbreviations or unspecified references. Number the pages consecutively with the first page containing; running heading (shortened title), title, author(s), affiliations(s), full address for correspondence, email address, also fax and telephone number" Social Psychology of Education (2005). Aretia
It is important to share empirical data or break through findings with colleagues, educators, scientist, etc. The short version of these findings can be published as an abstract. Most journals require that abstract submitters adhere to formatting guidelines as noted above. However, depending on the journal, small variations in the formatting and submission requirements may apply. As an educator, I can publish empirical results regarding data and interpretation of the data over a specified period of time. Published results may help other educators and students, or if I find an answer to a long-standing problem, I can publish this as well. I can choose to inform others of significant findings by publishing an abstract prior to or in conjunction with publishing the actual research paper.-Aretia
Achievement trajectory – Position of accomplishments over time; based on present data for a particular population or situation.The achievement trajectory is a measurable representation of the student’s learning progress as expressed through the rate of growth from the initial achievement in terms of test or assignment grades. The learning trajectory may be traced on a graph and the rate of progress compared to that of other individuals. On the graph, the initial achievement level is represented by the intercept and the growth rate by the slope. Dr. John Ferron, a professor at the University of South Florida and 2010 president of the Florida Educational Research Association, explains in his article Moving between Hierarchical Modeling Notations how second-level models based on mathematical matrices are used to compare and predict reasons for similarities among student trajectories (Ferron, 1997).I will use the achievement trajectory to evaluate the students’ rates of growth in such subjects as reading comprehension. This will allow me to adjust the pace of the class work and to discover which students are most in need of help of motivation. I would also like to share the data with the students, allowing that consciousness to impact their work and attitudes. - Kathleen
Action research - Systematic inquiry, with the collaboration of those affected by the issue being studied, for purposes of education and taking action or effecting change (615 Glossary).Action research has developed quite recently in the western hemisphere. Bud Hall, of the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, describes the historical, philosophical and political background of the concept of action research, otherwise known as participant research. The concept is based on constructivism. Bud Hall views action research first as a social and activist tool for groups, and only secondarily as an educational tool (Hall, 2005).In our program, action research is used for the educational improvement of the researcher and the refinement of the teaching aspects researched. I will be using action research during my internship under the MAT program to experiment with systematic instruction in metacognitive reading and writing strategies to improve reading comprehension. The students will become active participants with me in this exploration. This research should lead to future projects as I adapt to teaching in schools. - Kathleen
causal inferences – Thought-process that tests whether a relation of cause to effect exists (615 Glossary).
One of the topics I am currently researching is the effects of using blogging in writing instruction. As I look at various studies on the subject, I have the opportunity to make any number of causal inferences based on the data and the conclusions offered by the various authors. Ducate and Lomicka (2008) make causal inferences between the use of blogs in writing instruction and increased ownership, creativity, and confidence in students. - Adam
Correlations - A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relationship, especially a structural, functional, or qualitative correspondence between two comparable entities. (615 Glossary)
Bracey complains that he would like “to found the National Association for the Abolition of Correlation Coefficients (2006)” because of the difficulty people have interpreting correlations in data. He continues to state that the correlations that can be made are useful if educators are helped to understand what they mean (Bracey, 2006). An example of a study that looks for correlations in teaching and student learning is Zeng’s study of physical education in urban high schools (2009). Zeng et al created a study that’s purpose “was to examine the features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities in urban high school physical education class settings using the DIBA [Direct Instruction Behavior Analysis] system (2009).” Looking at the relationship between how teachers utilized their class time and what students were capable of doing, the study determined three correlations. The first was the more time teachers spent informing students correlated with the amount students were motor engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The second correlation was that teacher questioning was related to students being cognitively engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The final correlation was between teacher feedback and students’ cognitive engagement (Zeng et al, 2009). Looking at correlations can help educators see what effects their teaching styles or their students’ socioeconomic status, or many other variables can have on student learning. Stephanie Miller
Conclusions - A final part of the writing that restates the thesis, analyze[s] and evaluates the main points, considers consequences, shortcomings, general implications, recommendations and manifests the value of the research’s main ideas. (615 Glossary)
In any documented study, the conclusion summarizes the information determined by the data collected. It provides a succinct picture of what has been determined by the study and where the information could possibly be taken from there. An example of this can be found in Snow and D’Amico’s 2010 study, The drum-circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk students youth in a school setting. The conclusion of this study restates the questions asked throughout the process, and restates the results that support the authors’ ideas (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). It gathers information from the various tools utilized throughout the study, from videotaped teaching to interviews, to prove their statements (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). The authors go on to state that “generalizations [cannot be made] from a qualitative study but the conclusions can help shape future studies (Snow & D’Amico, 2010).” They state other things that can be done with the information in the future as well. Snow and D’Amico also give advice for researchers planning future studies that build on the work done in this study (2010). When educators are utilizing studies to support a point being made, or are researching on their own, the conclusion is an important section to include. Stephanie Miller
Data inventory– summary of types of data available (615 Glossary).I believe that a diverse data inventory is invaluable in evaluating school performance and establishing a data-driven improvement plan. The article by Adrade et al. (2009) provides many ideas for formative assessment, self-assessment, and peer-assessment that I can implement in my language arts classroom. This will allow me to add variety to my data inventory beyond the basic test scores and assessment rubrics I already use.- Adam
Document analysis – Systematic, critical examination of instructional documents (syllabi, assignments, lecture notes, course evaluation results) in order to identify instructional needs and challenges and describe an instructional activity.- Stephan
In failing schools administrative may need to begin micro-managing in order to assist teaching in raising scores. A document analysis with the teacher may be an excellent first step. During the gathering stage of creating a data team these document analyses should be used.
Educational Research Issues: Topics, tensions, dilemmas, issues and challenges that characterize and affect learning and educational policy and are worthy of further investigation. (615 glossary) Aretia
"The NCLB (2002) is part of the recent history of educational reform with its
emphasis on basic skills and mandated assessments. These reforms and the values they reflect should be understood by all who work with schools, students, their families, and teachers" Duffy et al (2008). Aretia
"The key point here, of course, is the definition and unstated assumptions about the meaning of scientifically based research within the NCLB (2002) and the philosophical and practical values embedded within the definition. It is clear to many scholars that the meaning of scientifically based research embodied within the NCLB (2002) is that of empirical research that relies on quantitative designs, such as randomized clinical trials, quasi-experimental designs, and quantitatively validated assessment instruments to measure student and school achievement, as well as interpretations of such data regarding the appropriate age and time (i.e., grade level) by which an individual student should have acquired certain kinds and levels of knowledge" Duffy et al (2008).
"One of the difficulties with the NCLB (2002) is that these values that privilege quantitative research and quantitative individual assessment were never explicitly addressed. The NCLB Act assumes that we can specify and measure what all children should know and learn, and the grade level at which they should know it. Further, it assumes that accountability for assuring that children will have the expected grade level knowledge and skills can be established on the basis of these measures" Duffy et al (2008). Aretia
The educational literature reveals that there are educational research issues with the NCLB Act (2002) with regard to mandated assessments. I believe that one test does not fit all when it comes to measuring student achievement and learning at an "appropriate age, time, and grade level" Duffy et al (2008). In my classroom, I will respect that all students do not learn at the exact same age, pace, or grade level. I believe that learning is an individual experience. In my classroom, I will take the liberty to give students varied learning activities and assessments to individualize the learning process and measuring knowledge and achievement. Aretia
Experimental research - Research that seeks explanation for cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables while holding other factors constant. (615 Glossary)
Experimental research is extremely important is discovering the cause. In education, if you wish to learn why your students are performing better or worse, an educator must look at all variables. One cannot just assume that playing soft music, or having an extra study session is creating better scores. If a study is to be truly done, experiments should be repeated with different variables taken out. In the Dunleavy experiment laptops were used to determine their impact on student achievement. A control group, a school without laptops, was important to make comparisons and make sure another variable is not affecting scores. (Dunleavy, 2008) – Stephan
Heuristics - Trial-and-error procedure for solving problems (or reaching an unclear goal) through incremental exploration, and by employing a known criteria to unknown factors. (615 Glossary)
Heuristics is important in research because it takes the factors that are controlled and connecting it to unknown factors. In the Dodge (2009) study he points out that in the age of NCLB the heuristic approach is a “mental shortcut.” It is a simplified way of predicting student success. In the classroom, this could be use for making predictions based on current scores and determine the number of students needed to achieve a certain goal. Twynette
Implications – Deduction: something that is inferred (615 Glossary)
Concerning teacher effectiveness and experience, research from the Urban Institute shows that the impact of experience :is strongest during the first few years of teaching; after that, marginal returns diminish... Beyond the first several years of teaching, experience is a less useful indicator of increased productivity: (King, 2010). This correlation between can have serious implications for the way school districs hire, compensate, and retain effective teachers. The article suggests "that compensation aimed at rewarding experience-based productivity may be best frontloaded in the salary schedule" (King, 2010) in order to recruit good teachers and to improve teacher effectiveness.
- Cameron Johnson
“Inferenceis a good guess” (based on logic, statistics etc.) to observations or by interpolating the next logical step in an intuited pattern. Most empirical research is statistical. Therefore inferences are mostly made from evaluating and analyzing the research to make an inference. The conclusion called an inference. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic. In the classroom, a teacher may make an inference based on data. Such as if the majority of a class has not passed a specific section of a test, an inference could be made to reteach that specific topic.
Heather Kalish
Longitudinal data – Correlational, statistical data aimed at identifying a trend over a period of time through repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time. (615 Glossary)
Longitudinal data is important in research because it is a way of tracking progress over a period of time. In research done by Young et al. (2007), they explain that longitudinal data is a way of not only tracking data, but also away to analyze the cause and effect relationship of the data. By looking at the data of my student’s test score over a period of time I have a benchmark of where my students should score the year that I have them. It shows me what score my students need to strive for in order to continue to progress. At my school, we use longitudinal data form MSA to track the progress of students over the grade levels and as an indicator of projected performance. Twynette
Literature Review often used with academic oriented literature. It usually is done before a research proposal and the results. It brings the academic reader up to date and sets the goal for future research in that area. A literature review will contain a logical flow of ideas, references, and unbiased view of previous research of the topic. In the classroom, a teacher could have students conducting a research paper, participate in a literature review. Students can analyze their research using theories and methodologies in that particular subject.Heather Kalish
Measurement Error - Difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained by a measurement (615 Glossary).It is important to account for measurement error in research since the data that may be recorded at one point in time can be different from what is recorded at another time or under a different set of circumstances. In education, one of the most difficult skills to assess consistently is student writing ability. Grisham & Wosely’s (2005) study illustrates the potential for measurement error when there is no consistent standard for analyzing and assessing writing. While many can agree on what constitutes good or poor writing, quantifying those assessments can be a different matter. The concept of measurement error will remind me to improve the consistency and objectivity of my writing assessment rubrics. - Adam.
Non-experimental research – Causal-comparative research where one seeks to observe or identify natural causes and non-manipulated causes to determine the effect relationships
Non-experimental research is important because in many cases it is impossible for the observer not to have an impact on their experiment. For example, a principal observing a teacher in the classroom may result in extremely well behaved students by the sheer fact that the principal is sitting in the classroom. This may not be an actual representation of how the teacher and student truly relate. In the Lowther study, schools with large amounts of technology were visited to determine if technology integration was working. Barriers were discovered such as lack of technology knowledge on the teacher’s parts, availability of computers, and lack of administrative support for the programs. Variables were not needed to be controlled as this was pure observation on the part of the visitors to the schools. (Lowther, 2008) – Stephan
Observation – the act of making or recording the accepted value given for a single instance of a sample study.-Stephan
“People may well not behave in their usual manner whilst aware of being watched, or when being interviewed while carrying out an activity. Many forms of research involve similar problems and allowing for these in interpretation is a key professional skill for researchers. Commercial researchers actively use their experience of conducting many interviews and observations over time, building useful benchmarks about observer and interviewer effects in general.” (Association for Qualitative Research)
Quantitative research - Use of sampling techniques (such as surveys) whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to statistical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities. (615 Glossary)
A 2008 study of teacher certification and teacher effectiveness in New York City public schools looked at the characteristics of teachers hired during the 1999–2000 to 2004–2005 school years (Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008).
According to the quantitative data:
- Cameron Johnson
Score inflation - score inflation is an increase in scores that do not indicate a commensurate increase in actual proficiency. (615 glossary) Aretia
Tully (2008) stated that "the most important issue may well be the rapidly growing use of standardized tests to hold educational institutions accountable. Test-based accountability has become the cornerstone of K-12 education policy in America, and a big push is under way to extend it to postsecondary education. Unfortunately, we don't do a good job with it. For example, the simple approaches we have used often lead to inappropriate types of test preparation, and those in turn can cause severe score inflation -->Aretia
"In a classroom setting, score inflation can wreak havoc on high stakes testing. Score inflation is significant because students can be tested and earn a high score. The high score, however, bears no reflection on the student's true abilities. The score is only a manifestation that the student somehow gained access to certain contents of a particular test before the test was given. It is a real possibility that people would consider this cheating" Boudett, City, and Murmane (2008). Aretia
Score inflation is a very serious problem that can cause short-term and long-term difficulties for students. I believe that the short-term problems are that learning deficiencies go undetected, no remedial or individualized help will be offered, and records will not reveal a true assessment of a student's skill level in a particular subject or content area. Long-term problems are that the true skill levels, undetected, could very well fall below standards, student may not be prepared for next grade level, and may do poorly on future tests if the answers are not provided. I do not intend to be one of the educators who provide answers to students to enable them to pass a test. -
Aretia
Standard scores - these scores are used in norm-referenced assessment to compare one student's performance on a test to the performance of other students of the same age. These scores allow one to estimate whether a student's scores are
above average, average, or below average compared to their peers. (glossary 615)
Aretia
According to Badgett and Christmann (2009), "standard scores show an individual's relative performance within a group. We are all familiar with standard scores and use them all the time: SAT scores are standard scores, as are individual scores on achievement tests, class rank, intelligence tests, and a variety of other aptitude tests. Standard scores will help one understand their students' standardized test results and explain the results to parents."
As an educator, I would encourage students to take their SAT as soon as possible. The results of the test will give an idea of how well students are doing in their subjects. Students who earn high scores are usually exempt from the college placement exam. Students who earn low SAT scores may be required by some colleges to take the college placement exam. Depending on the results of the placement exam, students will be placed in remedial classes or placed at college level. Although SAT scores are helpful to colleges, parents and students in their school selection process, students who do not earn high scores can still attend college and do well in their studies.
Aretia
===Norm-Referenced Tests- According to Wikipedia, a norm-referenced test/NRT is a type of test, assessment or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. This estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and possibly other relevant data from a sample drawn for the population. The term normative assessment refers to the process of comparing one test-take to his or her peers. NRT’s are the most common and oldest type of standardized test. According to our text, Data Wise, some examples of norm-referenced test are as follows: Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), Stanford 9, and the Terra Nova, California Achievement Test, Metropolitan Achievement Test, and the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. These tests are designed to describe performance-often the performance of individual students, but in some cases that of schools, districts, states, or even countries-in regards to distribution of performance.We use NRT's to gather a baseline as to whether students are performing on grade level in comparison to those of their same aged-peers. I use these test to help guide my lesson planning, differientiated instruction, reteaching activities and project implementation. Laysha
Standard-Referenced Tests- According to our text, Data Wise, standards-referenced tests are the newest type of assessment which is also known as standards-based test (SRT). SRTs are developed by specifying content standards (what students should know and be able to do) and performance standards (how much of this content they are expected to know and be able to do). SRTs are very similar to CRT-(Criterion Referenced Tests), with the exception that in most cases three or four different performance levels are specified. Basically, when students are assessed on a SRT, they demonstrate whether they show “basic”, “proficient”, or “advanced” knowledge of the content standards-based on the curriculum or frameworks during classroom instruction.
The students are tested yearly over the curriculum and instruction that they should have learned from the previous school year to mid-year of the next school year; for example, our standards in Maryland run from March to March; whereas they begin to learn the next grade level standards during the end of the previous school year and they test in March. These test are atate mandated and as we all are aware of the high priority of the Education reform-these test are of high importance. Laysha
Unstructured observation (field notes)- It refers to one of the ways of using observation as method of primary data collection. In this type of observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand. For example, observing children playing with new toys. This form of observation is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. However, in this form of observation there is high probability of observer’s bias. Unstructured Observation- considered the early phase of research and may become specific when and where to observe, what specific aspects of the setting or behavior to observe, and how to make and record observations. I use this type of observation when visiting other classrooms, visiting new schools as a whole, and when sitting in on meetings that I am not directly involved in. Laysha
Archival research- The kind of research in which the major base of references and knowledge is from secondary sources such as census data, newspaper clippings, birth certificates and past records in different sectors, such a research is called archival research. Another name for archival research is secondary research, which is the opposite of primary research, which is research that is done from scratch and no past material is sought help from. In regards to archival research and education, we store data on our students as well as important documents such as birth certificates. We store graduation certificates, testing performance data, and graduation requirements data.
Laysha
Statistical analysis - refers to a collection of methods used to process large amounts of data and report overall trends (615 Glossary). Statistical analysis has become a major factor in education in recent years with the rise in high stakes testing. The article by Zwick et al. (2008) discusses importance of teachers and principals being able to understand and use the statistical analysis or data to improve their instruction. This study found that many educators were not familiar with how to use or understand statistical analysis and data. However, it stated that teachers provided with professional development “made significant gains in their understanding of statistical concepts” (Zwick et al. 2008, p 16). Teachers that can read and understand the results of statistical analysis can use the trends shown to help improve their teaching. For example, I could use a statistical analysis of the whole school, county, or state to see trends of where other students are and where my students should be. I can then use that data to try to improve my teaching methods reinforcing areas where my students may be lacking. - Michelle
Criterion-referenced tests (CRT) – test that is designed to determine if a student has mastered a defined set of skills (615 Glossary). An article by Betebenner (2009) discusses the difference between criterion and norm referenced tests as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. The article states that because these types of tests set a required level of achievement they “are extremely demanding, requiring, without condition, an acceptable level of achievement from all students.” (Betebenner 2009, p 43). I use criterion-referenced tests a lot in my teaching through the use of rubrics. Rubrics have a set passing score and allow me to judge each student individually based on their abilities or knowledge. Criterion-referenced tests are also used on a broader level in state assessments like the MSA where there is a set score for proficient or not. This is also a norm-referenced test however because it also compares and ranks students. – MichelleStatistical significance
- measure of validity of data. Data collected is "worth accepting with confidence," not a result of "chance" or sampling error. (Boudett, City, & Murnane, 2005) Not to be confused with practical significance(does the data have value.) (Bracey, 2006) Statistical significance does not mean what is states literally. Significant in non- statistical terms relates to value or importance. One might look at results and analyze what it means to them. That is practical significance. Statistical significance relates to truth of the data collected or reliability. This concept would apply to the classroom when comparing scores of a student. One would have to collect enough data and control as many variables as possible to ensure good scores are not a result of lucky guesses, while bad scores are not the result of teaching style.
Ron Pardoe
summative research methods – Research used to assess or summarize the value of a completed activity or program (615 Glossary).
Roblyer and Doering (2010) assert that in order for a technology tool to be worth using, it must add value to existing instructional content. This litmus test is also known as the “so what?”question. Gray et al. (2010) performed a research study on the implications of Web 2.0 utilities as tools for assessment. Their investigation found a paucity of summative research methods used to quantify the value added of Web 2.0 authoring as assessments, and therefore concluded that more detailed studies need to be done on a variety of Web 2.0 formats. - Adam
Formative Research Methods- Research that occurs before a program is designed and implemented, or while a program is being conducted, helping to define, and understand and improve the relationship between programs and population needs. (EDTC 615 Glossary)
Formative research can be conducted not only to identify a program's operation, the problems which it addresses, and the effects it appears to produce, but also to facilitate program development. (Rutman,1997) This research method is currently being applied in our school. We have analyzed data to identify student weaknesses, and are asked to implement interventions. General reading comprehension skills have been identified as a deficit for several of my students. I have decided to implement a program titled Fast Track to address the students comprehension. Fast Track has a test to determine a student's baseline. I will collect data to analyze the effects this Reading program appears to produce.
Ron Pardoe
Qualitative Research-Investigative methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research, which emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found. These kinds of studies are incredibly important to the field of education due to the fact that the natural setting of the classroom is taken into effect. Educators can never really set up a perfect lab experiment where we can control for all variables of the situation due to the often quite varied experiences and abilities of all of our students. Using qualitative research methods allows teachers to make observations and comparisons that can then better inform the way they teach. Presently, there seems to be a movement in education against the use of qualitative studies due to their inherent lack of quantitative results. Author H. K. Wright argues that, “the state of qualitative inquiry,’ …in education is in quite a state.”(2006 p 793). By this the author means that the use of qualitative research in the classroom has taken a hit due to numbers based programs like NCLB. The author; however, argues that there are still several reasons for why the use of qualitative research is worthwhile in a classroom setting.
I tend to agree with the view point of Wright and have often times used qualitative research methods in my class when attempting new teaching methods that have been discussed during teacher in services. Administration is often finding new methods of teaching certain content areas and put a great deal of emphasis on teachers incorporating these methods into their classes. These methods; however, are not all made the same, some are great and some are awful. To determine if I will continue to use a technique I set out to observe my students in the classroom using the technique and compare it to how productive my students have been using other methods. This isn’t scientific, but it gives me a chance to see the technique in a real life situation that is full of variables to see if it is a worthwhile teaching technique. - John
Multiple methods- The combining of different methods within the same study design. There are certain times when performing research when one method of gathering data will simply not provide enough information to answer the research question. In these cases multiple methods of data gathering may be needed. As stated by Hitchcock in his article on multiple methods, “Mixed methods research entails a design in which ‘the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry.’”(2010 p 49-50). For instance, in my AP Psychology classes there is clear data analysis that I can perform at the end of each year to determine how successful I was at teaching my students Psychology content. I can gather the data from the AP tests and see how my numbers compare to other teachers all around the country. This information; however, is only a small part of what I need to know in order to determine how successful I was at helping my students learn. In order to get a more complete picture of my students learning I could also incorporate qualitative measures through a survey at the end of the year to see what topics students felt the most/least confident in, as well as what activities/lectures were the best for the purposes of learning Psychology. With this information, I could better understand what the struggling students in the class did and didn’t understand as well as what the exceptional students needed to be successful. This is simply one example of how combining research methods can be beneficial to the teacher and students of a classroom. - John
Practitioner research - Research carried out by practitioners for the purpose of advancing their own practice.
Practitioner research “is conducted by an individual or group that assumes a dual role, both as a practitioner or provider of services and as researcher. It is typically carried out for the purpose of advancing the practice. It offers a reflective and systematic approach to university research and outreach that places a study setting and participants at the heart of the study. It incorporates the collective knowledge of the community, and increases the likelihood that results will be applied. The methods may vary, but the role and relationships of the researcher and participants must be carefully negotiated and articulated (CSU, 2007).” According to Pilkington, the steps in practitioner research include “cyclical processes of diagnosing a situation, gathering data, planning to act, acting and reflecting on action (2009).” Pilkington’s study looked at educators in a doctoral program that asks them to evaluate their teaching utilizing practitioner research (2009). Educators should utilize practitioner research in their teaching to determine where they need to grow and what will benefit their students’ learning. Stephanie
Replicability - Property of an activity, process, or test result that allows it to be duplicated at another location or time. (EDTC 615 Glossary) - Twynette
Research Methodology - A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods (615 Glossary)
Research methodology has to do with the way research is gathered. According to Symonds and Gorard, there are two defined methods for gathering research, quantitative and qualitative (2010). They also describe a third method, which they define as a “mixed method” for retrieving information (Symonds, 2010). The mixed method utilizes aspects of both qualitative and quantitative in order to gather a broader range of information. In Boudett’s book, Data Wise, there is an anecdote about a school that is attempting to create a data inventory (Boudett, 2010). One of the teachers in the story complains that, “the [state standardized] test gives such an incomplete picture of who our students are. It tells us essentially nothing about a lot of the things we all know really matter: how often they come to school, how they behave when they’re here, what specific skills they’re struggling with if they are new to learning English, whether they can write a decent term paper. We’re not going to be able to get our kids beyond simply passing if we don’t take these things into account (Boudett, 2010).” With this in mind, educators and administrators should pay careful attention to the research methodology that they use to gather information about students that can then help students to progress and achieve more. Stephanie
WEEK 7 TERMS
Case study – Form of qualitative, descriptive research that refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. (615 Glossary)
According to Soy (1997) case study research “brings us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.” Case studies are often referred to in education to support validity on a certain topic or issue. Educators use case studies to provide a type of research for a particular issue of study. In my early years of becoming an educator, I had to perform case studies on a particular student or students to analyze the student/s development or growth. Educators would find case studies useful to support possible instructional approaches in their classroom or learning theories. Kristen
Field-based research – Includes activities aimed at collecting primary data rather relying on published material. Often involves face-to-face interviewing and direct observation. (615 Glossary)
Monica
Focus groups – Small number of people (usually between 4 and 15) brought together with a moderator to discuss and produce qualitative data about a particular topic. (615 Glossary)
Focus groups are an integral component in a school improvement plan. Focus groups are usually comprised of select individuals with the knowledge to improve school routines and procedures. This group analyzes data and makes instructional decisions based on conversations and research about an issue or topic.
The benefits to “focus group research can produce highly useful information about programs and services that surveys miss, so it may be worthwhile to rise to the challenge.” Grudens-Schuck et, al (2004)
Our school uses focus groups that our school calls Professional Learning Teams (PLT’s). In these teams we meet to discuss a particular issue or topic. We become the experts of this topic and present the information to our staff. The goals we work on are aligned to our School Improvement Plan. Kristen
Triangulation of data – A form of cross-checking by gathering of data through several sampling strategies—from different populations, at different times and in different place. (615 Glossary)
Triangulation of data is looking at other data to either confirm or dispute your findings. According to Boudette (2005), it is helpful to draw on different types of assessments, such as tests, portfolios, and student conferences. The chapter goes on to say that assessments should be given at different times during the school year to help discover patterns or inconsistencies in student responses. Although the standardized tests are an important tool to use to gather data on students, triangulation of data allows for a more accurate assessment of student learning.
Monica
Random sample - Sample chosen that allows all subjects an equal probability of being selected. Can also be called a probability sample. In order to discern true validity of new educational practices, one must make sure that studies attain a random sample. In order to run an experiment/correlational study, one must assign individuals to control and experimental groups, this must be done in a random way, or else the validity of the experiment will be called into question. Take for example, if a teacher is trying to gather data on two different methods of teaching a certain topic. If he simply assigns one class to the control group and the other to the experimental group and then bases his conclusion on the different performance of these groups on the two methods, he would be incorrect. There could be all sorts of factors that differentiate the first class from the second that are not being controlled for in the experiment, and these differences could be just as likely of causes for the difference in performance. If the teacher would have divided either class up by drawing names from a hat, or some other random means of assignment, the teacher would better control for possible confounding variables that could influence the study. Random sampling is a basic practice of all research methodologies and can be seen in any of the following research articles:
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574.
John
Regression analyses - A statistical technique that compares a dependent variable to an independent variable(s) in order to identify a relationship between the two or more variables. Being an AP teacher, there are several variables that are important to consider when trying to identify what leads a student to a passing grade on the AP exam. I currently teach AP and Honors Psychology and have for as long as I have taught both, I have instructed students to take both classes because it would benefit them on the AP exam. Now that I have had several years of data, I have performed some regression analyses to see if there is a relationship between the independent variable of “# of semesters in a psychology class” and the dependent variable of “score on the AP exam.” What I have found is that students who have taken both 2 semesters of Psychology earn close to a full point higher score on the AP test. Obviously one cannot reduce the score of an AP test to one single variable, as is discussed thoroughly by Alan Sykes in his lecture on regression analysis, but it does prove to be a good stat when trying to influence students to take both classes in order to better their scores. - John
Control group - In experimentation, group of subjects or conditions that is matched as closely as possible with experimental group, but is not exposed to any experimental treatment.(EDTC 615 Glossary)
Control groups are used in research to determine if the variable in a study is effective. The control group is the group that does not change, or the one in which the variable does not apply. Although when we think of a control group we tend to think in terms of more lab based research (like medical research) it applies to educational studies as well. In the study by Begeny et al. (2010) the main focus of the study is comparing the results of the control group to the variable group in order to determine the effectiveness of their reading program. The study was able to “produce reading outcomes that differ significantly from a control group” (Begeny et al. 2010) but more importantly they stressed the importance of similar studies in order to “empirically validate existing educational programs being used in schools” (Bengeny et al. 2010). It is extremely important to have these control groups for comparison when implementing new programs within your school. Without a control group how can you prove the effectiveness of the program being used. For example at my school they have implemented a behavioral plan that is being implemented at several schools across the state. They collect data from our school and compare it to other schools which are the control group to determine if the program is effective. With the recent push for research based interventions and programs teachers need to be able to determine when a program is effective based on data comparisons using control groups. – Michelle
Informed consent – A legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications and future consequences of an action.
Informed consent is important in research because many studies require that individuals be made aware of an experiment and give consent before the research can begin. However, in the article by Crasborn the author discuss new implications of consent in our increasingly technology driven world (2010). The author states that at times when information is obtained technologically informed consent can be difficult to obtain (Crasborn 2010). Overall in research it is important to obtain the proper informed consent, in order for a valid through study.
Obtaining the proper consent is something you have to be very careful of in your own classroom. I know my school has a very strict consent policy for any student pictures projects that are posted online, as well as for certain subject areas. Consent forms are very familiar to all of us if various forms but as teachers we have to be extra careful to have students and parent consent before posting things like class projects, blogs, or online portfolios. In our increasingly connected world it is defiantly something we as teachers have to be aware of. – Michelle
Inference – An assumption or conclusion that is rationally and logically made, based on the given facts or circumstances (615 glossary).
In the study of assessments, Bracey (2006) often talked about how people, organizations, and even countries infer student achievement levels based on single test results. As I work with my seventh-grade world geography students, I am to teach them about the physical characteristics of the countries, as well as the capitols, type of government, and religion. As the year goes on, I will begin to provide the students with some information about a country and have them infer the type of government, or religion that it might have. Their inferences will be based on what we have covered to that point, especially information about other countries in the region. Rodney
Integrate-to form, coordinate, or blend into a functioning or unified whole (merriam-webster.com). Roblyer (2006) addresses integrating problem-solving software into both the directed and constructivist classroom (pp. 98-99). Since I first encountered Roblyer’s writings on strategies for integrating software, I have begun to integrate technology, various news media, and printed material into my classes. For example, with this being an election year, I use a C-Span Classroom lesson in my unit on the US Constitution. The C-Span lesson includes a number of videos, and readings from the Constitution. To go along with that, the students identify the positions that are open this fall, and who is running for each. To finish the unit, I hope to have the students do an online project where they collaborate with teammates to produce a campaign spot supporting a candidate or issue that will be on the ballot this fall. The latter part will only take place if our computers are available in time. Rodney
Raw score – simple count or percentage achieved on a test (615 glossary). In my class, I mostly use raw scores to communicate the students progress to them and their parents. Mehrens and Lehmann (1985) point out that raw scores do not tell much other than the percentage correct the the student received. In the day-to-day class work, this works for me since the motivation is to reach the perfect score of 100%. However, when looking at the standardized tests, norm-referenced scores is what our school leadership, and our parents like to see since they can compare our students to the norm for all catholic students across the country. Rodney
Structured observation - A research study in which the observer records what they are witnessing. Can be done by filling out a questionnaire form or counting the occurrences of a certain activity (615 glossary). Annually, our principal, or assisistant principal will spend a class period observing each teacher in action. After the observation, the teacher meets with the principal and they discuss how the class went. To get the most out of this process, I would like the observer to follow Griffee’s (2005) work and use a detailed checklist to record required components while allowing time and a place to observe and record other activities taking place in the classroom. This will give the observer, and the teacher, a broader view of the classroom dynamics.
Rodney
Sources
American Psychological Association (2007). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th,ed.,p.12), Washington, DC: Author. AretiaAndrade, H., Buff, C., Terry, J., Erano, M., & Paolino, S. (2009). Assessment-driven improvements in middle school students' writing. Middle School Journal, 40(4), 4-12. Retrieved September 29, 2010, from Education Research Complete database. - Adam
Association for Qualitative Research (n.d.) Retrieved November 2, 2010 from http://www.aqr.org.uk/glossary/index.shtml?term=observereffect - .- Stephan Badgett, J.L., Christmann, E.P. (2009). Interpreting assessment data: Statistical techniques you can use. National Science Teacher's Association. Retrieved October 11, 2010 from Education Research Complete database.Aretia Betebenner, D. (2009). Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Student Growth. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 28(4), 42-51. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2009.00161.x. - MichelleBegeny, J., Laugle, K., Krouse, H., Lynn, A., Tayrose, M., & Stage, S. (2010). A Control-Group Comparison of Two Reading Fluency Programs: The Helping Early Literacy With Practice Strategies (HELPS) Program and the Great Leaps K-2 Reading Program. School Psychology Review, 39(1), 137-155. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. – MichelleBoudett, K.P., City, E.A., & Murnane, R.J. (2008). Data wise: a step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning, p. 33. Cambridge, MA. Harvard Education Press. AretiaBoudett, K, City, E, & Murnane, R. (Ed.). (2005). Data wise:A step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press -RonBoudett, K.P., City, E.A., Murnane, R.J. (Eds.). (2010). Data Wise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. - Stephanie Miller
Boudett, K., City, E, & Murnane, R. (2008). Chapter 4: Digging into data. In Data wise a step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning (pp. 90-92).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press ~ Monica Moyer
Boudett, Kathryn, City, Elizabeth, & Murnane, Richard. (2008). Data Wise: A Step-by-Step Guide to Using Assessment Results to Improve Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Harvard Education PressNorm-Reference Test. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 20, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm-referenced_test Laysha
Bracey, G. (2006). Reading educational research:How to avoid getting statistically snookered . Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.- Ron
Bracey, Gerald W. (2006). Reading Educational Research: How to avoid GettingStatistically Snookered. Portsmouth: Heinemann.LayshaUnstructured observation. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2010 from
www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/**Observation**.pdf- Laysha
Archival Research. (n.d.) Retrieved November 14, 2010 from http://www.blurtit.com/q491303.html
-Laysha
Bracey, G. W. (2006). Reading educational research. Heinemann: Portsmouth, NH. Stephanie Miller
The California State University Chancellor’s Doctoral Incentive Program. (2007). Practitionerresearch. Retrieved from http://teachingcommons.cdl.edu/cdip/facultyresearch/Practitionerresearch.htmlStephanie Miller
Crasborn, O. (2010). What Does "Informed Consent"Mean in the Internet Age?. Sign Language Studies, 10(2), 276-290. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - Michelle
Ducate, L., & Lomicka, L. (2008). Adventures in the blogosphere: from blog readers to blog writers. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(1), 9-28. doi:10.1080/09588220701865474. - Adam
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